Posted by: Richie Bernardo

Most Americans rely on cars to get around. According to the Bureau of Transportation Statistics, “87 percent of daily trips take place in personal vehicles.” And even with growing access to public transportation in U.S. cities, most people still choose to travel by car, mainly for reasons such as “comfort and reliability.”

In truth, however, driving is often a major hassle and expense. Drivers annually spend an average of 200 hours on the road, plus another 41 hours in gridlock. For a full-time worker, that’s the equivalent of a six-week vacation. Add the costs of wasted time and fuel due to traffic congestions, and our collective tab comes to about $124 billion annually, or $1,700 per household. That figure doesn’t even include the additional $515 expense for maintenance and repairs, which many of us are likely to spend given the poor quality of America’s roads — currently ranking No. 14 out of 140 economically developed nations, according to the World Economic Forum, and graded “D” by the American Society of Civil Engineers.

But some cities are better for those behind the wheel. To determine those places, WalletHub’s analysts compared the 100 largest cities across 25 key indicators of driver-friendliness. Our data set ranges from average gas prices to average annual hours of traffic delays to auto-repair shops per capita. Read on for our findings, tips and insight from a panel of experts, and a full description of our methodology.

1. Main Findings
2. Ask the Experts
3. Methodology

Main Findings

Embed on your website<iframe src="//d2e70e9yced57e.cloudfront.net/wallethub/embed/13964/geochart-cardrivers.html" width="556" height="347" frameBorder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe> <div style="width:556px;font-size:12px;color:#888;">Source: <a href="http://ift.tt/2tDbgIB;  

Overall Rank	City	Total Score	‘Ownership & Maintenance Costs’ Rank	‘Traffic Conditions & Infrastructure Quality’ Rank	‘Auto Safety’ Rank	‘Auto Availability & Maintenance Accessibility’ Rank
98	San Francisco, CA	38.18	100	85	80	98
99	Detroit, MI	37.01	98	95	77	89
100	Washington, DC	36.24	86	96	97	96

Ask the Experts

With cost, safety and environmental impact ranking among the top concerns for the auto industry, we asked a panel of experts to share their thoughts on the following key questions:

1. What money-saving tips do you have for drivers now that gas prices have begun to bounce back?
2. When do you think there will be more self-driving than human-driven cars?
3. Considering all potential consequences, do you think that automated vehicles will be a net benefit or net negative for society?
4. When evaluating the best cities for drivers, what are the top five indicators?
5. What can local authorities do to reduce traffic and improve safety?

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• Susan Shaheen Adjunct Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Co-Director of the Transportation Sustainability Research Center and Director of the Innovative Mobility Research at the University of California Berkeley
• Ray Klump Professor and Chair of the Department of Computer and Mathematical Sciences at Lewis University
• Kevin Desouza ASU Foundation Professor in the School of Public Affairs at Arizona State University
• Jie (Jane) Lin Research Associate Professor in the Institute for Environmental Science and Policy & Associate Professor in the of Department of Civil and Materials Engineering at the University of Illinois at Chicago
• Jason Reece Assistant Professor of City & Regional Planning in the Knowlton School of Architecture at The Ohio State University
• Hank Lucas Professor of Information Systems in the Robert H. Smith School of Business at the University of Maryland
• Erick Guerra Assistant Professor in City and Regional Planning at the University of Pennsylvania
• Dean Bushey Professor of Computer Science & Information Technology and Director of Autonomous System Research at Florida Polytechnic University
• Christian G. Claudel Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin
• Bradley W. Lane Assistant Professor and Undergraduate Program Coordinator in the School of Public Affairs and Administration at The University of Kansas & Vice-Chair of the Transportation Geography Specialty Group at the American Association of Geographers
• Benjamin Seibold Associate Professor of Mathematics in the Applied Mathematics and Scientific Computing Group at Temple University

Susan Shaheen Adjunct Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Co-Director of the Transportation Sustainability Research Center and Director of the Innovative Mobility Research at the University of California Berkeley What money saving tips do you have for drivers, now that gas prices have begun to bounce back? There are a number of money saving tips that include eco-driving, proper vehicle maintenance, and trip chaining. First, drivers can drive in a way that minimizes fuel consumption. This can include a variety of techniques: reducing driving speeds, accelerating gradually, anticipating stops, and using the air conditioning (instead of rolling down windows). Second, vehicle maintenance is an important aspect. Keeping vehicles properly maintained, and tires properly inflated can also help reduce fuel consumption. Finally, pairing trips and errands together (sometimes referred to as trip chaining), rather than making multiple separate trips, reduces overall driving distance, number of trips, and also saves time. When do you think there will be more self-driving cars than human-driven? Part of the difficulty in answering this question is the varying levels of automation (e.g., Level 3 -- "eyes off" vs. Level 4 -- "mind off" vs. Level 5 --"no human intervention required”). There is also the possibility that Level 4 and 5 vehicles will become a sizeable share of the fleet, but not permitted to operate autonomously right away. For example, an automaker may sell Level 5 vehicles, but such vehicles are not permitted to operate without human intervention until specific legislative/regulatory reforms, a particular date in the future, etc. This would be similar to the rollout of HDTVs introduced in the late 1990s, where TV sets were introduced and people could buy a HDTV, but use it with standard definition. SDTV content did not end until 2014. This is also similar to how color TVs and programming were rolled out. Considering all potential consequences, do you think that automated vehicles will be a net benefit or net negative for society? At this point, the impacts, user behavior, and adoption of automated vehicles are speculative. We do not know how the public will adopt these, and whether the impacts will be positive, negative, or a mix of both. For example, will automated vehicles be shared, or will privately owned vehicles be replaced with privately owned automated vehicles? What will be the average vehicle occupancy, and/or will zero occupant vehicles pose a real threat to congestion and traffic operations? Will households downsize the number of private vehicles they own (sharing one privately owned automated vehicle)? Will automated vehicles be able to automatically avoid congestion, or will there be automated congestion (similar to computer network bandwidth limitations)? The impacts of automated vehicles will likely have regional variations, and depend on a variety of local factors, such as demographics, land use, and density (among others). What can local authorities do to reduce traffic and improve safety? This is highly dependent on a variety of local and neighborhood factors. In some cases, some forms of shared mobility may be able to reduce traffic, by reducing vehicle miles traveled, vehicle ownership, and facilitating first-and-last mile connections to public transportation. In other cases, specific operational and infrastructure improvements may be more important to mitigating congestion and improving safety. This could include strategies, such as traffic signal coordination, signal prioritization for public transportation, and a variety of active transportation improvements such as crosswalks, sidewalks, bike lanes and others. When evaluating the best cities for drivers, what are the top five indicators? This will vary by the metrics adopted. Some metrics could include:

• Cost to drive (either on a per mile, per month, or annual basis);

• Average annual hours of traffic delays;

• Average daily commute time;

• Number of days of inclement weather (snow, ice, and precipitation);

• Average roadway quality (there may be a number of ways to measure this, such as pavement cracking, for example).

Ray Klump Professor and Chair of the Department of Computer and Mathematical Sciences at Lewis University When do you think there will be more self-driving cars than human-driven? I think there will be more self-driving cars than human-driven ones in the next twenty years. The technology needs further refinement: vision systems need more thorough testing, and more extensive testing is required to ensure that all likely scenarios are included in the testing and refining of such systems. That should take 3 to 5 years. In the meantime, and after that period, legal questions will have to be addressed, that consider liability and the effect on insurance rates. Those might be adequately resolved over the next decade, as the legal challenges usually prove thornier than the technical ones. Then there is the issue of generational acceptance: do people who enjoy the feeling of freedom and control from driving want to sacrifice those, for the convenience of automatic pilot? Many long-time drivers will probably say no, at least initially. New drivers who start to see and experience the technology more and more will more quickly adopt the idea, once they start driving. But it will take a while for the holdouts to change their minds, unless they find a financial incentive to do so, from insurance companies and tax breaks. Considering all potential consequences, do you think that automated vehicles will be a net benefit or net negative for society? It depends how well we handle the cybersecurity issues associated with these systems. As highway systems become more computerized to support autonomous driving, they will become increasingly attractive targets for hackers, and a new vector for terrorism. If we can make these systems secure and reliable, autonomous vehicles will make consumers safer and more productive. If we don't, we'll imperil transportation, with economically crippling results. Kevin Desouza ASU Foundation Professor in the School of Public Affairs at Arizona State University What money saving tips do you have for drivers, now that gas prices have begun to bounce back? Plan your routes to minimize the frequency of short trips, and increase the potential for one trip with multiple stops that focus on efficient routing. Leverage free home delivery services when purchasing goods and services. When do you think there will be more self-driving cars than human-driven? Self-driving cars, or autonomous vehicles, are already on our roads. The exact time when they will surpass human-driven cars is not clear. What is clear is that by 2025, most cars will have features that permit them to be semi-autonomous. Fully autonomous transportation networks require public-private partnerships to shape policies and governance mechanisms. These will take longer to develop. Considering all potential consequences, do you think that automated vehicles will be a net benefit or net negative for society? Net benefit. They will enable us to be more sustainable when it comes to transportation, due to the fact that they will be more fuel efficient, they will be shared (i.e., not everyone needs to have an autonomous vehicle), and they will be able to sense and respond to changing conditions in the environments to avoid traffic jams, backlogs, etc. When evaluating the best cities for drivers, what are the top five indicators?

• Incentives for carpooling;

• Presence of HOV lanes;

• Smart sensors for signals and traffic management (e.g., variable speeds based on traffic);

• Pedestrian friendly inner-core of the cities (this is common in Europe, where access by car is limited);

• Roads in good condition.

Jie (Jane) Lin Research Associate Professor in the Institute for Environmental Science and Policy & Associate Professor in the of Department of Civil and Materials Engineering at the University of Illinois at Chicago What money saving tips do you have for drivers, now that gas prices have begun to bounce back? Drive less or switch to a better fuel economy vehicle, or better yet an active mode of transportation (e.g., walking, biking, and public transportation). When do you think there will be more self-driving cars than human-driven? The main determinant factor is not technology -- the technology is fast-advancing. The determinant factors are the utility of self-driving cars, transportation infrastructure, government regulations, and institutional barriers. By utility, I mean the benefit of not having to drive, or giving up driving must greatly exceed the cost of owning, operating, and maintaining a car (either self-driving or human-driven). Better transportation infrastructure (e.g., lane striping, signage) is needed to accommodate self-driving cars. Proper government regulations need to be in place to ensure safety, liability, and security. Government agencies, auto makers and insurance companies must work cooperatively to make it work. When all those conditions are met, then we'll see more self-driving cars than human-driven. Considering all potential consequences, do you think that automated vehicles will be a net benefit or net negative for society? The answer depends on how autonomous vehicles (note that automated and autonomous vehicles are not exactly the same thing) are deployed and used to serve our mobility demand. The net benefit would have to come from shared use of AVs, and hence reduced auto ownership, vehicle trips, parking space, traffic congestion, and air pollution. Therefore, in my opinion, AVs must be deployed to promote shared mobility services (e.g., car sharing, ridesharing). This may present a great opportunity to do away from the current auto-dependent personal mobility paradigm we are so used to in this country. If we continue to promote personal auto ownership with AVs, there could be an overall net negative caused by the induced demand, due to AV's convenience by providing stress-free travel and better use of time. That would lead to more vehicle trips, greater miles traveled, and consequently worse traffic congestion and so on. What can local authorities do to reduce traffic and improve safety? More comparable alternative transportation modes to automobile travel. For that, we need more innovative transportation finance mechanisms, other than gas tax. Better land use planning. Promote active modes of transportation. Promote sharing mobility. Provide real-time and accurate information to travelers. Safety has a lot to do with infrastructure design and maintenance. When evaluating the best cities for drivers, what are the top five indicators?

• Congestion level;

• Roadway surface conditions;

• Traveler information availability and accuracy;

• Parking availability and cost;

• Intermodal/network connectivity.

Jason Reece Assistant Professor of City & Regional Planning in the Knowlton School of Architecture at The Ohio State University Considering all potential consequences, do you think that automated vehicles will be a net benefit or net negative for society? We can’t completely predict the “net” positive or negative impacts with any type of precision, but we can be certain that there will be both positive and negative outcomes created by this technological change. If the progress presented by automated vehicles is to be a net positive for our society, it will depend less on the technology, and more on how we implement and integrate these technological changes into our society. My greatest concern is that the benefits of much of today’s “smart technology” are not reaching those families and communities that are economically vulnerable. We know that poorer drivers are more likely to drive older vehicles, and that those who are asset poor and more cash-dependent (and without traditional banking and credit) are not going to have the financial “keys” to access some of these innovations. We already see this gap with respect to adoption of bike share, car sharing and services such as Uber. So, the technology has the potential to be transformational, for expanding mobility for those folks who need it most, but it will not happen without some thoughtful efforts to assure that those communities, families and workers have access to these technological improvements. Hank Lucas Professor of Information Systems in the Robert H. Smith School of Business at the University of Maryland What money saving tips do you have for drivers, now that gas prices have begun to bounce back? I am probably not the best one to answer this question, as all of our cars take premium fuel, and I frequently drive a sports car, where economy is not the primary objective of driving. The only advice I can offer is to try and combine trips, to make multiple stops rather than multiple trips. I will often run an errand with my commute to or from school. When do you think there will be more self-driving cars than human-driven? This is the question everyone is asking, including auto manufacturers, public officials, departments of transportation and the general public. There are six levels of self-driving vehicles identified by the Society of Automotive Engineers and the National Highway Safety Administration.

0. No automation;

1. Driver assistance, like adaptive cruise control;

2. Partial automation, where the driver can take her hands off the wheel, but will must watch the road;

3. Conditional automation; same as the two above, but the driver can takes eyes off the road sometimes;

4. High automation, where the vehicle can drive by itself under the right circumstances; The vehicle may ask for help -- this is the level required for a true self-driving car;

5. Full automation -- you never need a driver and there may not even be driver controls.

I believe that the first successful autonomous vehicle application will be trucking on Interstate highways. Interstates are restricted roads, as they exclude pedestrians, bicycles and the distractions one finds in urban areas. For many highways in the U.S. and elsewhere, a single safety driver could monitor a convoy of two or more driverless trailer trucks. I expect that by 2020, we will see autonomous truck convoys with one safety driver able to control all the trucks in the convoy from the lead vehicle. The average age of cars in the U.S. is 11.4 years according to Polk’s. It will take a while for any innovations to be adopted for even half of U.S. vehicles. For automation levels one to five above, more than half of the vehicles on the road will be at each level over a period of years. A number of cars today are at level 1. I have a car that nudges the wheel back into the lane if I stray over the lines defining each lane. If I had adaptive cruise control, the car would be providing a great deal of assistance. I expect some vehicles will be at levels 1. and 2. by 2020. For half of the U.S. fleet to be there, you are probably looking at 2025. For level 5., I believe that we are looking at 2030 and beyond. Considering all potential consequences, do you think that automated vehicles will be a net benefit or net negative for society? I believe that autonomous vehicles will be a net benefit to society, but they will be disruptive to many existing organizations. I see a future in urban and suburban areas, in which current two-car families only own one car. That vehicle is used for trips more than, say 20, miles. It may be a hybrid or electric vehicle. For local trips, the members of the family will use Uber or Lyft, and the vehicles for these services will eventually be all electric. Families will save the cost of a vehicle, though they will pay for individual rides. Given the capital investment and operating costs, it is hard to believe that using Uber or Lyft could cost as much as car ownership. There will be fewer accidents and injuries and lower insurance costs (see below). This scenario changes the market for auto manufacturers. Uber and Lyft drivers will need to buy cars, but many families will no longer purchase two or more cars for family members. Ford recently replaced its CEO with the head of its autonomous vehicle division, and is trying to become a transportation company, recognizing that the market for cars will change dramatically in the near future. Taxi and limousine companies will have to change to offer smartphone capabilities, and look more like Uber. There should be far fewer accidents, impacting insurance companies and the medical industry. There will likely be fewer cars to insure, and rates will have to be lowered with fewer accidents. The move to more electric vehicles will affect the auto supply and repair business. There is less to go wrong with an electric, as opposed to internal combustion engine. These industries will shrink, as they experience less demand for their products and services. Given the size of the auto industry and companies that offer automotive services and products, there will be a dramatic impact from the likely changes in the way we travel. I hope that state highway departments will still maintain a few winding two-lane roads for those of us who actually enjoy driving. What can local authorities do to reduce traffic and improve safety? Local authorities need to create a regulatory environment that encourages the use of autonomous vehicles. They have to balance safety against progress with technology. Researchers are working on some of the very challenging problems of autonomous and semi-autonomous vehicles. Authorities need to cooperate with those developing the technology to find solutions. Today pedestrians present a problem for self-driving vehicles, and there can be a problem for an uninvolved driver to take back control of a semi-autonomous vehicle when it needs a human to determine what to do next. If your question is not aimed at autonomous vehicles, but rather at what to do today, then one answer is to use congestion pricing. Singapore and London charge drivers to enter congested areas during peak travel times. Other cities can adopt this strategy, which will reduce traffic and improve safety. Using systems like EZpass, it is easy to charge motorists automatically without requiring traffic to stop and pay a toll. When evaluating the best cities for drivers, what are the top five indicators? I have not thought about this question before, but here are a couple of ideas:

1. Population: the smaller the better;

2. Car ownership statistics: the fewer cars the better;

3. Average speed for traffic in the city;

4. Condition of roads: what grade would civil engineers give the roads in the city;

5. Availability of parking;

6. Availability of public transportation to reduce automotive travel.

Erick Guerra Assistant Professor in City and Regional Planning at the University of Pennsylvania What money saving tips do you have for drivers, now that gas prices have begun to bounce back? The easiest thing is to drive less. Depending on where someone lives, this might involve taking transit, walking, or cycling more, chaining more trips together (i.e., going shopping on the way home from work), or carpooling. When do you think there will be more self-driving cars than human-driven? I'd guess it will be another 5 to 10 years before there is anything available at a somewhat reasonable price. Then it will take another 10 to 15 years for the fleet to turn over. My best guess is 2040 or so. That's the round number, where I feel like my prediction is just as likely to be too early as too late. Considering all potential consequences, do you think that automated vehicles will be a net benefit or net negative for society? Net benefit. The safety improvements and decoupling of parking from other land uses (like shops and apartments) will both likely have large social benefits. I'm less convinced by productivity gains from not having to drive (most people aren't particularly productive on a train or plane), or environmental benefits from reduced driving or car ownership. Total vehicle travel may increase substantially if automation makes time spent in a vehicle more pleasant. What can local authorities do to reduce traffic and improve safety? Reduce travel speeds, particularly in urban areas. Speed definitely kills. Reducing exposure would also help. The states and cities with the highest fatality rates often have the most driving. These differences can be substantial. For example, Dallas has a traffic fatality rate that is four times higher than Boston's. Drivers are not four times worse -- they just drive a lot more. When evaluating the best cities for drivers, what are the top five indicators? It really depends on what you want to measure. Some easy indicators might be how much it typically costs to own a car, how long a typical commute to work takes, the per capita traffic fatality rate, the average distance people in a household drive per year, and how many activities (jobs, restaurants, etc.) people can reach within 15 or 20 minutes of driving. The last measure is particularly important, because commutes tend to be longer and more expensive in big cities, but people often have more and better opportunities to choose from. I also might add something about having other options besides driving. There are a lot of places where people feel like they need a car to run even a small errand, or grab a meal. Some parents feel like their kids' chauffeurs. The ability to get around without driving is an important consideration as well. I'd rather be a driver in a place where driving is a choice, and not a necessity. What money saving tips do you have for drivers, now that gas prices have begun to bounce back? The easiest thing is to drive less. Depending on where someone lives, this might involve taking transit, walking, or cycling more, chaining more trips together (i.e., going shopping on the way home from work), or carpooling. When do you think there will be more self-driving cars than human-driven? I'd guess it will be another 5 to 10 years before there is anything available at a somewhat reasonable price. Then it will take another 10 to 15 years for the fleet to turn over. My best guess is 2040 or so. That's the round number, where I feel like my prediction is just as likely to be too early as too late. Considering all potential consequences, do you think that automated vehicles will be a net benefit or net negative for society? Net benefit. The safety improvements and decoupling of parking from other land uses (like shops and apartments) will both likely have large social benefits. I'm less convinced by productivity gains from not having to drive (most people aren't particularly productive on a train or plane), or environmental benefits from reduced driving or car ownership. Total vehicle travel may increase substantially if automation makes time spent in a vehicle more pleasant. What can local authorities do to reduce traffic and improve safety? Reduce travel speeds, particularly in urban areas. Speed definitely kills. Reducing exposure would also help. The states and cities with the highest fatality rates often have the most driving. These differences can be substantial. For example, Dallas has a traffic fatality rate that is four times higher than Boston's. Drivers are not four times worse -- they just drive a lot more. When evaluating the best cities for drivers, what are the top five indicators? It really depends on what you want to measure. Some easy indicators might be how much it typically costs to own a car, how long a typical commute to work takes, the per capita traffic fatality rate, the average distance people in a household drive per year, and how many activities (jobs, restaurants, etc.) people can reach within 15 or 20 minutes of driving. The last measure is particularly important, because commutes tend to be longer and more expensive in big cities, but people often have more and better opportunities to choose from. I also might add something about having other options besides driving. There are a lot of places where people feel like they need a car to run even a small errand, or grab a meal. Some parents feel like their kids' chauffeurs. The ability to get around without driving is an important consideration as well. I'd rather be a driver in a place where driving is a choice, and not a necessity. Dean Bushey Professor of Computer Science & Information Technology and Director of Autonomous System Research at Florida Polytechnic University When do you think there will be more self-driving cars than human-driven? In the rapidly evolving world of set-driving vehicles, it is difficult to set exact timelines. Ask 20 experts, you'll get 25 opinions that change based on advances, regulations, and events.

• 2021 -- for level 4/5 autonomous vehicle, very low sales, very high cost, probably less than 4% of traffic volume;

• 2025-2030 -- moderate premium, 25% of sales, 15% traffic volume;

• 2030-2035 -- 50% sales, 35% of volume;

• 2040-2045 -- over 50% of volume.

The limiting factor will probably not be technology, but rather regulations, insurance liability, and public acceptance of autonomous vehicles. Considering all potential consequences, do you think that automated vehicles will be a net benefit or net negative for society? A huge net benefit, but not without disruptions to resolve:

• Safety -- 39,500 deaths last year on U.S. roads, more than 90% caused by human error (distracted driving ranking first). Automated vehicles will greatly reduce vehicular accidents.

• Mobility -- Increased mobility for handicapped, older drivers, and others who currently cannot drive themselves.

• Congestion -- Decreased traffic congestion due to fewer accidents, smaller gaps between cars, smart routing, etc.

• Shared mobility -- potential to utilize shared mobility, car on demand, shared cars for communities. Reduce car ownership, costs, etc.

• Parking -- reduced congestion. No need for large parking lots and parking garages in cramped inner city spaces. Cars can autonomously park themselves in tighter spots, in off-site spots.

• Connectivity -- Connected Vehicles (V2V and V2X) provide traffic information between cars, to first responders, and to traffic management systems. Accidents, potholes, routes, emergencies, traffic flow information shared in real time between vehicles and these agencies.

• Reduced Emissions -- Less idling time, more Electronic Vehicles, smart routing.

• Increased jobs -- New high tech market, with a demand for cutting edge technology.

Christian G. Claudel Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin What money saving tips do you have for drivers, now that gas prices have begun to bounce back? To reduce fuel expenses, here are a few tips:

• Do not use a premium gasoline grade, unless mandated by the vehicle. Most vehicles can run on regular gasoline (87). Using a higher grade does not bring any benefit in fuel consumption, since the energy density of all gasoline grades is similar. Higher grades only have benefits for high compression ratio engines (such as turbocharged engines), though most turbocharged engines can run on 87 gasoline.

• Maintain your engine with regular oil changes to maintain its energy efficiency.

• Drive in a non-aggressive manner: stop-and-go causes a considerable increase in relative fuel consumption, particularly in severe congestion.

• Properly inflate your tires. Underinflated tires cause an increase in friction, which increases consumption.

When do you think there will be more self-driving cars than human-driven? Predicting the future is always difficult: self-driving vehicles have been around the corner since the 1960s, yet highly automated cars have only started to appear on the market. I anticipate that it may take a few decades for self-driving vehicles to generalize, so I would think that self-driving cars would become more prevalent than human-driven vehicles around 2030-2040. There is always a lot of uncertainty in these predictions though; a key factor will be how fast the cost of the required sensors will decrease in the next decade. Considering all potential consequences, do you think that automated vehicles will be a net benefit or net negative for society? I anticipate that automated vehicles will be a net benefit for society, provided that the correct policies are put in place. For example, a major issue is allowing vehicles to drive without a passenger, which can increase traffic congestion overall. If all vehicles drive with passengers, there is also the issue of elasticity of demand: making travel easier will increase the number of trips, which will load the transportation network even more. However, in terms of performance, automated vehicles will greatly outperform humans, with increase in road capacities of 50% or more according to recent simulations. More importantly, flows containing automated vehicles will be more stable, with less stop-and-go events (provided that the correct control algorithms are implemented in automated vehicles), as shown in this piece. Traffic safety will also improve, but currently humans are still better than most automated vehicles. For example, the Uber test vehicles have to be taken over every few minutes (in average). Automated vehicles are currently not as adaptable as humans. Bradley W. Lane Assistant Professor and Undergraduate Program Coordinator in the School of Public Affairs and Administration at The University of Kansas & Vice-Chair of the Transportation Geography Specialty Group at the American Association of Geographers What money saving tips do you have for drivers, now that gas prices have begun to bounce back? Well, first off, it appears that the glut in the global oil market is going to linger around a little longer than industry experts predicted earlier in the year, so drivers won’t see too big a bite out of their wallets at the pump. That being said, there are several things drivers can do to save money on gasoline costs. One of the biggest things is making sure the tires are inflated to their maximum recommended level. Tires can lose pressure over time, and many drivers won’t necessarily notice, because the ride is softer and more comfortable. But just a few PSI difference can affect mileage by a few miles to a gallon. For a relatively fuel inefficient vehicle, such as the larger SUVs that many families drive for summer trips, that can be a pretty large proportional increase in mileage. Mileage is also heavily affected by hard acceleration and breaking. Giving the vehicles around you space and setting the cruise control while driving (unless you’re on hilly terrain) can save you additional mileage (as well as be much safer on the road). Mileage is also affected by the weight of the vehicle. Many of us carry around things in our car day-to-day that we don’t really use or just let accumulate (my golf clubs in the winter here in Kansas, for example.) Cleaning out the car and lightening the load by just 50 or 100 lbs can make a notable difference, too. When do you think there will be more self-driving cars than human-driven? Most people think of it in terms of self-driving cars versus human-driven cars, when in reality there are at least five levels of autonomous vehicle technology that the industry and the field recognize. Most vehicles, even old ones on the road right now, have some form of autonomous technology, such as cruise control. If we consider a self-driving car as something that can make at least one origin-destination trip without the driver assuming control, then I think we’re talking about quite a bit of time -- maybe a generation or two -- before there are more self-driving cars than human-driven cars. You have to consider the speed at which technology will fully develop. We tend to forget how long complex revolutions of any kind take. Some compare autonomous vehicle technology as infiltrating the vehicle market with the speed of the iPhone, which recently turned 10. But even smartphone technology still has many components in a state of flux; there isn’t a universal operating system, service quality varies immensely across carriers and across geographic space, mobile reception remains a line-of-sight challenge, and the technology remains cost-prohibitive and inaccessible to many. And that’s for a technology that costs a few hundred dollars and weighs a few ounces. Now upscale that to a technology that costs a few tens of thousands of dollars, weighs a few tons, and is only one of three revolutions occurring in transportation right now (the other two being sharing/connected mobility and the electrification of surface transportation.) Now, components of the autonomous technology are already penetrating the vehicle market. It will soon be almost impossible to find a new vehicle that doesn’t have some form of driver assist, for example. However, there are a great many technological, behavioral, and regulatory questions to be answered before you see more self-driving cars than human-driven ones. Considering all potential consequences, do you think that automated vehicles will be a net benefit or net negative for society? The long-term reality for automated vehicles will be one where the vehicles drive more efficiently, are safer, and can make better use of existing roadway capacity. These are all net benefits for society. But the reality that paints that picture isn’t coming for quite some time. There will be many accidents, many issues, many false starts and hiccups, many technological glitches, and most importantly, a bumpy and convoluted diffusion through society, as different segments of the population adapt to and embrace the technology, with a wide array of speed and interest in doing so. What can local authorities do to reduce traffic and improve safety? Local authorities don’t always have a ton of control over these things. Traffic is often a byproduct of economic success, either through long-term trends or seasonal or cyclical events. Safety is a byproduct of information dissemination, coupled with the user buying into and adopting it. To me, I would like to see local authorities invest more in traffic-calming measures, like well-designed roundabouts, and technological solutions, like integrated signal-timing systems, that can help better manage traffic flow (and by extent, traffic safety) in an urban area. When evaluating the best cities for drivers, what are the top five indicators? As a driver, you’re looking to minimize costs and maximize convenience. So, I’d look for the following, in no particular order:

• Congestion index for the city -- how long am I going to be in traffic?

• How much does it cost to insure my vehicle in that city?

• What are gasoline costs like?

• What is parking like?

• Can I access were I need to go (that isn’t work or home) via car, or is there a transit alternative?

Benjamin Seibold Associate Professor of Mathematics in the Applied Mathematics and Scientific Computing Group at Temple University When do you think there will be more self-driving cars than human-driven? There is a wide variety in estimates of future autonomous vehicle (AV) penetration rates over time. One recent independent study predicted that by 2040, one quarter of all vehicles in the United Stated will be fully autonomous. The key reasons for this relatively far future date, and for the large uncertainty in predictions, are:

• The development of fully autonomous vehicles (i.e., not requiring any oversight) still requires some crucial research and development steps to be taken. While current self-driving cars can operate rather well in highway traffic, urban streets with pedestrians, bicycles, and cross walks still pose a variety of yet unresolved research challenges.

• Vehicle autonomy carries complex legal ramifications. Once a vehicle is officially declared fully autonomous, the responsibility is passed from the driver to the manufacturer. Moreover, with automation will also come connectivity (to other vehicles and/or infrastructure). Consequently, vehicle controls may partially be affected by its surroundings, thus fundamentally changing the traditional view on what it constitutes to control a vehicle.

Therefore, in the near future, we will see vehicles with more and more "assisted driving" technology. But full autonomy in all situations is not on the immediate horizon. Considering all potential consequences, do you think that automated vehicles will be a net benefit or net negative for society? Without doubt, vehicle automation and connectivity offer opportunities to changing the way traffic flows in unprecedented ways. Most prominently, smart technology can improve safety by warning the driver, and assisting in efficient obstacle avoidance. In addition, just a few smart vehicles on the roadways can control the traffic towards running more efficiently. While the addition of a few self-driving cars to the traffic flow will not reduce congestion, many of its adverse consequences can in fact be substantially reduced. For example, a recent experiment demonstrates that at only 5% penetration rate, autonomous vehicles can remove stop-and-go traffic waves. While this does not remove the root cause of congestion (balance of supply and demand of road capacity), the taming of traffic waves results in a fuel consumption reduction of up to 40%. At the same time, numerous research studies show that improper usage or control of self-driving vehicles could also have negative consequences, such a net increase of total trips taken, or inefficient usage of the road network. Hence, vehicle automation has substantial positive benefits for society -- if it is implemented properly. What can local authorities do to reduce traffic and improve safety? With regards to future vehicle autonomy and connectivity, the key challenges for authorities are:

• The fundamental transition of responsibility for control of the vehicle, from the human driver to a connected intelligent infrastructure. Future traffic operations will not take place on a vehicle-by-vehicle basis anymore; but all our current legal structure is based on that perspective.

• Changes in our modes transportation will fundamentally change our travel decisions. In the context of urban highway expansions, the concept of supply-induced demand is well known: the addition of road capacity (e.g., lane expansion) tends to invite people to take more trips, thus preserving, or even worsening, the congestion level. However, these phenomena are likely minor compared to the fundamental changes in our mobility patterns that self-driving cars and related technologies will bring.

Methodology

In order to determine the best and worst cities for drivers, WalletHub’s analysts compared a sample of the 100 most populated U.S. cities across four key dimensions: 1) Cost of Ownership & Maintenance, 2) Traffic & Infrastructure, 3) Safety and 4) Access to Vehicles & Maintenance. Our sample considers only the city proper in each case and excludes cities in the surrounding metro area.

We evaluated those dimensions using 25 relevant metrics, which are listed below with their corresponding weights. Each metric was graded on a 100-point scale, with a score of 100 representing the most favorable conditions for drivers. Data for metrics marked with an asterisk (*) were available at the state level only. For metrics marked with two asterisks (**), the square root of the population was used to calculate the population size in order to avoid overcompensating for minor differences across cities.

Finally, we determined each city’s weighted average across all metrics to calculate its total score and used the resulting scores to rank-order the cities in our sample.

Cost of Ownership & Maintenance – Total Points: 30

• Cost of New Car: Full Weight (~4.29 Points)
• Average Gas Prices: Double Weight (~8.57 Points)
• Average Annual Car Insurance Premium: Full Weight (~4.29 Points)
• Auto Maintenance Costs: Full Weight (~4.29 Points)
• Total Extra Vehicle Operating Costs per Driver: Full Weight (~4.29 Points)
• Average Parking Rate: Full Weight (~4.29 Points)

Traffic & Infrastructure – Total Points: 30

• Average Annual Hours of Traffic Delays: Full Weight (~4.14 Points)
• Number of Days with Precipitation: Full Weight (~4.14 Points)
• Number of Cold Days: Full Weight (~4.14 Points)
• Average Commute Time by Car (in Minutes): Full Weight (~4.14 Points)
• Quality of Roads: Full Weight (~4.14 Points)
• Quality of Bridges: Quarter* Weight (~1.03 Points)
• Roadway Miles per 1,000 Persons: Full Weight (~4.14 Points)
• Waze Driver Satisfaction Rating: Full Weight (~4.14 Points)

Safety – Total Points: 30

• Accident Likelihood in City vs. National Average: Full Weight (~5.45 Points)
• Motor-Vehicle Crash Deaths per Capita: Full Weight (~5.45 Points)
• Rate of Car Thefts: Full Weight (~5.45 Points)
• Rate of Larceny: Full Weight (~5.45 Points)
• Strictness of DUI Punishment: Half* Weight (~2.73 Points)
• Punitiveness of High-Risk Driver’s Insurance: Half* Weight (~2.73 Points)
• Driving Laws Rating: Half* Weight (~2.73 Points)

Access to Vehicles & Maintenance – Total Points: 10

• Car Dealerships per Capita**: Full Weight (~2.50 Points)
• Auto-Repair Shops per Capita**: Full Weight (~2.50 Points)
• Car Washes per Capita**: Full Weight (~2.50 Points)
• Gas Stations per Capita**: Full Weight (~2.50 Points)

 

Sources: Data used to create this ranking were collected from the U.S. Census Bureau, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Council for Community and Economic Research, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Advocates for Highway and Auto Safety, INRIX, National Centers for Environmental Information, American Automobile Association, The Road Information Program, Federal Highway Administration, Waze Mobile, Allstate Insurance Company, QuinStreet Insurance Agency, Yelp, Parkopedia, TrueCar and WalletHub research.

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